Have you ever imagined how a graceful bronze image of Nataraja, crafted in the 11th century CE under the Chola rulers for temples in Tamil Nadu, ended up in North American or European museums? Well, the short answer to that is colonialism, war crimes and insatiable greed. During the 19th and early 20th centuries, when India was under British colonial rule, there was a huge demand for Indian artefacts on the international market. Most of the artefacts, which are currently inside the glass showcases of western museums, have been illegally picked up by art collectors from auction rooms. These artefacts had religious significance and were meant to be installed in a temple to receive offerings from the worshippers; instead, they were sold to the highest bidder. These stolen idols aren't just statues made of bronze and stones for us; they are our gods and goddesses, integral to our spiritual and cultural identity.

This illegitimate practice continued even after India’s independence. Subhash Kapoor, one of the most recent high-profile art smugglers, sold hundreds of artefacts to western museums. In 2008, he sold an 11th century Chola period bronze statue of a Nataraja to the National Gallery of Australia for USD 5.6 million.^[1] According to UNESCO estimates, some 50,000 pieces of art stolen from Indian temples are currently in Western museums or private collections. ^[2] Often, these include statues and paintings of Hindu, Jain, and Buddhist deities.

Repatriation of stolen or looted cultural artefacts to their country of origin is a post-colonial practice. It represents a fervent desire to right a wrong - a kind of restorative justice. While there has been a long-held belief that “looting cultural heritage is wrong and stolen objects should be returned to their rightful owner,” the inclination to organise the return of stolen objects only emerged in the 1950s.^[3] The admission of guilt by the erstwhile colonial masters makes repatriation a slow and difficult process to achieve. Since prominent artefacts like the Parthenon Marbles^[4] and Benin Bronzes ^[5] have been the focus of intense media attention and repatriation initiatives, there has been a revived interest in repatriation among the general public.
The primary justifications for repatriation, most commonly offered by nations and communities seeking the return of their cultural artefacts, are:

• It is morally correct to say that looted property should be returned to its rightful owner.
• Cultural objects belong together with the cultures that created them and continue to be a crucial part of contemporary cultural and political identity.
• Refusing to return items taken during colonial rule contributes to the continuation of imperialist beliefs that deem colonised peoples to be fundamentally inferior.
• Museums with looted collections, erroneously called universal or encyclopaedic museums, are located in the Global North, places that are expensive to visit and therefore not somewhere most of the world can go to see art.
• Even if objects were originally acquired legally, our attitudes about the ownership of cultural property have changed and collections should reflect these contemporary attitudes.

The Indian government is planning a repatriation campaign for artefacts dating back to the colonial era, including the Kohinoor diamond. ^[6] Since 2014, Prime Minister Narendra Modi has made it his mission to bring back works of art that were looted from India during and after British colonialism. Shortly after Modi became the Prime Minister of India in May 2014, Australia gave back a stolen 11th century idol of Nataraja from the Chola dynasty and an Ardhanarishwara statue dating back to the 10th century. ^[7] The bronze statue of Nataraja was purchased by the National Gallery of Australia in 2008 for 5.1 million dollars from art smuggler Subhash Kapoor. The Ardhanarishwara statue was illegally sold to the Art Gallery of New South Wales in 2004.

In 2014, the Indian High Commission in Canada formally requested the Department of Canadian Heritage for the repatriation of the majestic 12th century sandstone sculpture of the “Parrot Lady” to India. The sculpture was illegally brought to Canada from Khajuraho in 2011 and was detained by the Department of Canadian Heritage due to a lack of proper documentation. In April 2015, then-Canadian Prime Minister Stephen J. Harper presented the Parrot Lady sculpture to Prime Minister Narendra Modi in Ottawa. ^[8] These initial repatriation efforts by Prime Minister Narendra Modi from western countries set a precedent. Since then, almost every visit to western countries has been followed by the repatriation of stolen artefacts. Bringing back Indian artefacts and cultural heritage became a key element in India’s foreign policy and the restoration of India’s pride.

A 10th century Mahishasuramardini idol stolen from a temple in Pulwama’s Tengpora village in the erstwhile state of Jammu and Kashmir landed in the showcases of the Linden State Museum for Ethnology in Germany and was brought back to India after 25 years to its place of origin in Kashmir under this government. ^[9] The 18-armed sculpture of Durga was made of ‘lush greenstone’. Setting a new trend, in October 2015, German Chancellor Angela Merkel handed over the Mahishasuramardini idol to Prime Minister Narendra Modi on her visit to India. ^[10] The Mahishasuramardini idol was later put on display at the new Shri Pratap Singh Museum in Srinagar, Kashmir.

In November 2015, the Singapore-based Asian Civilization Museum returned an 11th century Uma Parameshwari bronze idol stolen from Shiva temple in Ariyalur district in Tamil Nadu by notorious art smuggler Subash Kapoor. ^[11] The Asian Civilization Museum purchased the idol in 2007 at a cost of USD 650,000, unaware that the idol was illicitly trafficked. ^[12] The idol was handed over to the officials of the Archaeological Survey of India, was temporarily kept at the Central Antiquity Collection in Purana Qila and later moved to Chennai, its place of provenance.

A stolen Kushan sculpture of a seated Buddha^[13] from Mathura, Uttar Pradesh, was purchased by the National Gallery of Australia from an art gallery in New York in 2007. Later, officials from the National Gallery of Australia questioned the authenticity of the artefact’s export from India. The Indian High Commission in Canberra informed the Ministry of External Affairs, Government of India, about it, and an Archaeological Survey of India team was deputed as the agency to gather evidence on the matter. The Buddha sculpture was repatriated to India in 2016 after a process of authentication. It is currently displayed in the National Museum, Delhi, India.

The NGA also purchased a 13th century Chola sculpture of Goddess Pratyangira in 2005 from a New York-based dealer. ^[14] The sculpture originally belonged to the Sri Vriddhachalam temple, Tamil Nadu, as per the documentation records of the French Institute of Pondicherry. In August 2016, the National Gallery of Australia received approval from the Minister for Arts, Australia, for the deaccession of the sculpture, and it was repatriated to India in 2016.

In June 2016, President Barack Obama agreed to return more than 200 ancient artefacts, valued at more than USD 100 million, that were stolen from religious sites in India and smuggled out of the country. ^[15] These artefacts included bronze and terracotta pieces, like the statue of Saint Manikkavichavakar, a mystic and poet from the Chola period, stolen from the Sivan Temple in Chennai. ^[16] Some of the religious statues were more than 2,000 years old. Prime Minister Narendra Modi attended the event for the return of the idols held in Washington, D.C. The event formally marked the beginning of the process of returning more than 200 stolen cultural objects to India. The Prime Minister thanked US President Obama for taking the decision to return the ancient treasures. ^[17]

A stolen marble idol of Lord Brahma and his consort Brahmani from the 12th century was retrieved from London, United Kingdom, in January 2018.^[18] The priceless Brahma-Brahmani idol was stolen from the UNESCO World Heritage Site at Rani-ki-Vav and smuggled out of the country in early 2001. It was in the possession of an antique dealer in London who had put out an advertisement to sell it.^[19] It is presently displayed in the ASI museum in Purana Qila, Delhi.

In August 2022, Scotland returned seven cultural artefacts to India that were looted during British colonial rule. ^[20] The transfer of ownership ceremony took place at the Kelvingrove Art Gallery and Museum. Six of the items were stolen from northern India in the 19th century, and a seventh was illegally purchased after being stolen from its original owners. The seven antiquities include a ceremonial Indo-Persian sword from the 14th century and an 11th century carved stone door jamb taken from a temple in Kanpur.

The list of repatriated Indian artefacts is getting longer, particularly in the past decade. Many more such antiquities are in the process of being repatriated. The government has adopted a proactive approach to “bringing back Indian artefacts and cultural heritage.” On numerous foreign visits, Prime Minister Narendra Modi discussed the matter with global leaders and multilateral institutions. According to the Union Minister of Culture, G. Kishan Reddy, as of January 2024, 344 stolen antiquities have been brought back to India since May 2014 under Prime Minister Narendra Modi.^[21] This number of repatriated artefacts is constantly growing every year. This is in contrast to the fact that only 13 invaluable cultural artefacts were brought back from abroad between 1947 and 2014 by the previous governments.^[22]

The other thing that is noticeable is that most of the repatriated artefacts from western and developed countries were illegally smuggled out of the country after India’s independence. The western museums haven’t repatriated the artefacts looted from India during exploitative colonial rule. In December 2018, Dr. Mahesh Sharma, then the Minister of State (Independent Charge) for Culture, was asked a series of questions at Lok Sabha on the repatriation of artefacts from international museums. The Minister replied, “The antiquities taken away from India during the British Period and displayed in the International Museums do not come under the purview of illegal export. The Archaeological Survey of India is constantly making its best efforts to retrieve the antiquities that have been taken away from the country in violation of the Antiquities and Art Treasure Act, 1972. Efforts are made to retrieve such antiquities as and when they surface in foreign countries.” ^[23] This statement on the floor of the parliament highlights the fact that India urgently needs to change the definition of “illegal export of artefacts.” Any artefact taken out of India during British colonial rule should be considered an illegal export. The alteration will help in asserting India’s right over its stolen cultural artefacts, shamelessly kept in the glass showcases of the museums of the western world. Until these museums of the western world return the stolen treasures of India and the global south, they should be rechristened as Chor Bazaars and should be treated as active crime scenes.

References

^[1] “Dancing Shiva: National Gallery of Australia to return allegedly stolen statue to India,” ABC News, March 26, 2023. https://www.abc.net.au/news/2014-03-26/nga-to-return-allegedly-stolen-shiva-to-india/5347404
^[2] Navodita Kumari, Lucile Perrone, Sadia Rao and Alban Alvarez, “India's stolen heritage: Authorities push for restitution of religious artefacts,” France 24, March 14, 2023.
https://www.france24.com/en/tv-shows/focus/20230314-india-s-stolen-heritage-authorities-push-for-restitution-of-religious-artefacts
^[3] Dr. Senta German, ‘Repatriating Artworks’, Smart History, (5 July 2020) | Repatriating artworks. https://smarthistory.org/repatriating-artworks/
^[4] “What are the Elgin Marbles, at the centre of the row between Britain and Greece?” The Indian Express, December 2, 2023.
https://indianexpress.com/article/explained/explained-culture/parthenon-sculptures-britain-greece-9046166/
^[5] Barnaby Phillips, “Ghana, Nigeria and the quest for UK looted treasure,” BBC, May 12, 2024. https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/cd1353v5p5xo
^[6] “India plans repatriation of Kohinoor, colonial artefacts from UK: Report,” India Today, May 13, 2023. https://www.indiatoday.in/india/story/india-plans-repatriation-of-kohinoor-colonial-artefacts-from-uk-report-2378878-2023-05-13
^[7] “PM Modi's quest to bring back cultural artefacts started in 2003,” The Times of India, June 8, 2016.
https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/pm-modis-quest-to-bring-back-cultural-artefacts-started-in-2003/articleshow/52652090.cms
^[8] “India’s ‘Parrot Lady’ to fly back home,” The Hindu, April 17, 2015
https://www.thehindu.com/news/indias-parrot-lady-to-fly-back-home/article7110667.ece
^[9] “Stolen Durga idol returns to Valley after 25 years,” The Tribune, March 31, 2016
https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/archive/features/stolen-durga-idol-returns-to-valley-after-25-years-215576
^[10] “Angela Merkel returns India’s stolen 10thcentury Durga idol to Narendra Modi,” The Indian Express, October 6, 2015
https://indianexpress.com/article/india/india-news-india/angela-merkel-returns-indias-stolen-10th-century-durga-idol-to-narendra-modi/
^[11] B. Sivakumar, “Singapore gallery returns 11thcentury statue to India,” Times of India, November 8, 2015.
https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/singapore-gallery-returns-11th-century-statue-to-india/articleshow/49707493.cms
^[12] “Uma Parameshwari idol back from Singapore, set to return home soon,” New Indian Express, December 17
https://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/chennai/2015/dec/17/uma-parameshwari-idol-back-from-singapore-set-to-return-home-soon-854475.html?botrequest=true&
^[13] “Australian art gallery to return 2000-year-old Buddha idol to India,” The Indian Express, October 11, 2015.
https://indianexpress.com/article/india/india-news-india/australian-art-gallery-to-return-2000-year-old-buddha-idol-to-india/
^[14] “National Gallery of Australia to hand back ancient Indian sculptures linked to illegal art ring,” ABC News, September 19, 2016
https://www.abc.net.au/news/2016-09-19/national-gallery-to-hand-back-two-ancient-indian-sculptures/7858192
^[15] Alison Daye, “U.S. returns $100 million of stolen artefacts to India,” CNN, June 8, 2016. https://edition.cnn.com/2016/06/07/us/stolen-artifacts-returned-india/index.html
^[16] “US returns 200 artefacts worth $100 million to India,” Business Standard, June 7, 2016
https://www.business-standard.com/article/current-affairs/us-returns-200-artefacts-worth-100-million-to-india-116060700079_1.html
^[17] “US returns artefacts to India during PM Modi's visit,” June 7 2016.
https://www.narendramodi.in/be/pm-modi-at-ceremoney-of-repatriation-of-cultural-property-484112
^[18] “Stolen Twelfth Century Brahma-Brahmani Idol Retrieved from London, Government Plans to Retrieve More,” Swarajya, January 9, 2018.
https://swarajyamag.com/insta/stolen-twelfth-century-brahma-brahmani-idol-retrieved-from-london-government-plans-to-retrieve-more
^[19] Sanjeev K. Ahuja, “India retrieves 12th-century Brahma-Brahmani idol from London, others to follow soon.” Hindustan Times, January 9, 2018.
https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/india-retrieves-12th-century-brahma-brahmani-idol-from-london-others-to-follow-soon/story-AQedopXKmJc75JsC9aThXP.html
^[20] “UK: Glasgow holds ceremony to repatriate artefacts to India,” Al Jazeera, August 19, 2022. https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022/8/19/glasgow-holds-ceremony-to-repatriate-artefacts-to-india
^[21] “344 antiquities returned to India since 2014: Govt tells Parliament,” Business Standard, February 5, 2024. https://www.business-standard.com/india-news/344-antiquities-returned-to-india-since-2014-govt-tells-parliament-124020501239_1.html
^[22] Sanya Dhingra, “Under PM Modi, India got back more stolen antiquities in 3 years than the UPA government in 10 years,” The Print, July 14, 2017.
https://theprint.in/report/under-pm-modi-india-got-back-more-stolen-antiquities-in-3-years-than-the-upa-government-in-10-years/1907/
^[23] Govt of India, Ministry of Culture, Lok Sabha, Questions and Answers, 31.12.2018. Repatriation of Artefacts
https://sansad.in/getFile/loksabhaquestions/annex/16/AU3053.pdf?source=pqals

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