Bhutan’s Climate Change Response: Key Drivers and Strategic Initiatives

Introduction

Climate change has become one of the most severe and complex challenges in the 21st century. While the world’s poorest countries bear little or no responsibility for climate change, they face grave social and economic consequences. ^[1] The Himalayan region with a significant range of climate zones and habitats, with millions of people benefitting from Himalayan ecosystem services are facing the worst socio-economic consequences of climate change. ^[2] Bhutan, which is a small land-locked South Asian country lies in the eastern Himalayas and is renowned for its stunning landscapes and rich cultural heritage. ^[3] The environment in Bhutan is embedded with clean air, water, and^[4] ancient forests, with around more than 70 percent of the country remaining as forest. ^[5] However, the rapid melting of glaciers and increasing temperatures in the last years are risking Bhutan’s extensive forest cover, rich biodiversity, and clean water resources. ^[6] The paper below will highlight the key drivers contributing to climate change in Bhutan, followed by some of the strategic initiatives taken by the government in Bhutan to tackle climate change.

Bhutan’s Climate Change: Navigating a Troubled Future

Geographically, there are three climatic zones in Bhutan—the subtropical climate zones; the temperate climate zone and the Alpine Tundra Climate Zone. ^[7]. The country’s development is primarily dependent on climate-sensitive sectors such as the agriculture which covers 13.8% of the country’s land^[8] ; hydropower, and forestry with an approximately 80 percent of the country’s population depending on subsistence farming for their livelihoods. ^[9] Further, it is one of the most climate-vulnerable countries in the world and has a fragile ecosystem with around 2,700 glaciers which are feared to melt, causing floods and landslides. ^[10] Moreover, climate change in the Himalayan ecosystem can cause harm to the persistent ecology, biodiversity, and socio-economic condition in Bhutan. It has been reported by several international organizations working on climate change that Bhutan's glaciers which are melting at an alarming rate due to rising temperatures, will not only affect the availability of freshwater for agriculture, hydropower generation, and domestic use but also pose the risk of glacial lake outburst floods (GLOFs), threatening communities downstream. ^[11] Though current disaster management policies, risk reduction, and preparedness plans in Bhutan address the recurrent natural hazards, it is less prepared to deal with the new GLOF threat. Further, Bhutan’s entire northern region which has glacier/snow-fed lakes, with most of the country’s population and infrastructural development projects concentrated around the large river valleys; it is important to understand that climate-induced GLOFs could cause significant human and economic devastation. ^[12], ^[13] Frequent extreme weather conditions like floods, landslides, and droughts have disrupted livelihoods by damaging infrastructure, and exacerbating food insecurities, particularly in the rural areas that survives on the income generated from agriculture. ^{[14] [15]}

Bhutan despite contributing minimally to global greenhouse gas emissions, ^[16] has been ‘carbon-negative’ and is committed to remaining ‘carbon-neutral’ under its ‘Gross National Happiness Philosophy’. ^[17] Amid emissions from industry and transport rise, staying negative will not be easy since priorities demand increasing afforestation in the country. ^[18] It can be found that human activities have resulted in the emission of carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), and nitrous oxide (N2O) which will cause problems for Bhutan in remaining a carbon-negative country. ^[19] To understand the different parameters of Bhutan’s climate change, the following section will highlight three important internal factors affecting Bhutan’s ecosystem.

Key Drivers of Climate Change in Bhutan

Shifting Landscapes: Deforestation and Land Use Change in Bhutan- The land is a fundamental component of Bhutan's geographical makeup, and therefore, can be divided as primarily land used and land covered (LULC), where human activities contribute to land use, and natural elements define land cover. ^[20] Bhutan's land use and land-cover patterns have significantly changed in recent years after experiencing deforestation due to agricultural expansion, infrastructure development, and illegal cutting. The rise in deforestation has reduced the capacity of forests to absorb CO2, contributing to higher atmospheric CO2 levels and thus encouraging global warming. ^[21] The urbanization process has further complicated the problems for sustainable land use patterns in Bhutan. High growth rates in population, unchecked rural-to-urban migration in towns and cities causing increase in population density, including rapid increase in imports of cars leading to rise in demand for fuel; construction of roads, and buildings ^[22] are causing dynamic shifts in Bhutan’s agricultural land. ^[23] Further, the construction of new buildings has resulted in the highest energy consumption from heating and cooking. ^[24] Environmentalists’ observations reveal that the historical expansion of agricultural areas through community forestry practices in Bhutan is seeing a potential slowdown—influenced by factors such as urban growth and changing economic landscapes. ^[25] The rapid changes observed in land use will negatively affect environmental assets, which can further expose the population to climate change vulnerabilities. Therefore, considering the rise in temperatures and change in climate patterns, there is a need for well-informed policies for sustainable land management and preserving the country's distinctive landscape. ^[26]

Bhutan's Climate Challenge: Industrial and Energy Sector Emissions: As Bhutan develops economically, there might likely be an increase in its industrial activities and energy consumption in the future owing to the use of more fossil fuels that will release CO2 and other greenhouse gases into the atmosphere—contributing towards global warming. It has been reported that industrial processes and product use emissions accounted for 38% of total emissions in Bhutan in 2020, which has increased by 60% since 2010. ^[27] Meanwhile, the largest share of industrial emissions are from metal and cement production. ^[28]

In addition to industrial emissions, hydropower is the dominant renewable energy source, contributing almost 100% of Bhutan's electricity generation. ^{[29] [30]} The country's abundant rivers and mountainous terrain make it ideally suited for hydropower development, contributing not only to domestic energy security but also positioning Bhutan as a net exporter of electricity, primarily to neighbouring countries. ^[31] Therefore, in the past several years, Bhutan has successfully developed its hydropower resources since the former meets its energy needs primarily from hydropower, biomass, and fossil fuels. ^[32] Despite its green image, hydropower development in Bhutan is not without environmental consequences. Changes in river flow would directly impact energy security given changing patterns in sedimentation, and precipitation after reducing water reserves and exposing infrastructure to hazards such as flooding and unexpected rainfall patterns. ^[33] Further, the construction of dams and reservoirs can disrupt the local ecosystems, by altering river flows, and clearing forests can contribute towards more greenhouse gas emissions. ^[34]

Navigating Climate Change: Agricultural Practices in Bhutan's Changing Environment: Bhutan’s economy which is dependent on agriculture, livestock, and forest, provides livelihood to 57% of the total population. ^[35] Despite being the cornerstone of Bhutan’s economy, environmentalists now believe that traditional agricultural practices contribute to climate change through several practices that cause the emission of greenhouse gases. Methane emissions from rice and also livestock ^[36], in addition to nitrous oxide from fertilizers, have become the significant contributors. In one of the World Bank Reports it was found that agricultural sector emissions constitute almost two-thirds of total emissions which include—enteric fermentation with 61%, crop residues at 2.3%, rice cultivation contributing 11.4%, burning of crop resides at 1%, manure left on pastures contributing 14.6%, manure management (5.8%), and synthetic fertilizers (0.6%). ^{[37] [38]} Moreover, it was also found that agriculture accounted for 20% of Bhutan’s total emissions in 2019, that significantly increased to 24% in 2020. ^{[39] [40]} Considering the percentage of emissions through agricultural practices, there is a need to weaken agriculture’s contribution to total emissions through climate-smart practices. ^[41]

Amid fears of a rise in harmful effects of climate change on Bhutan’s ecosystem and biodiversity, the country has adopted various climate adaptation strategies in the past few years including several institutions promoting climate change adaptation and mitigation activities. The next section will highlight some of the government’s key initiatives in addressing issues related to climate change in the country to enhance community resilience and reduce vulnerabilities to climate-induced hazards.

Bhutan Government’s Strategic Initiatives in Combating Climate Change

As a least developed, mountainous, and landlocked country, Bhutan is at risk from the impacts of climate change. ^[42] However, Bhutan has been addressing impacts of climate change by enacting national policies, submitting National Communications to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, and increasing carbon withdrawal. ^[43] Bhutan’s constitution remains the core of the country’s approach towards maintaining a sustainable ecosystem and protected biodiversity. Article 5 of the Constitution of the Kingdom of Bhutan, mentions that the government shall protect and conserve the pristine environment and safeguard ^[44] the biodiversity after securing sustainable development by promoting both economic and social developments. ^[45] Moreover, the Bhutan Parliament has a standing committee on the environment and climate change that is entrusted with the responsibility to review existing laws and recommend new policies on climate change. ^{[46] [47]}

Among the several prominent state institutions promoting climate change adaptation and mitigation process, the National Environment Commission (NEC) is the key government organization coordinating climate and environmental policy. It is a high-level autonomous government agency and the highest decision-making and coordinating body on all matters relating to ^[48] protection and conservation. ^[49] The NEC established in 2016 engages with various sectors in economic development including hydropower, infrastructure, agriculture, and the private sector for several environmental conservation programs. ^[50] Apart from the NEC, the Ministry of Agriculture and Forests (MoAF) is another key organization responsible for implementing climate change adaptation initiatives. ^[51] In addition to these national institutions manifesting policies on climate preparedness and protectionism, international organizations and NGOs like— International Fund for Agricultural Development, the World Bank, Asian Development Bank, World Food Programme, United Nations Development Programme, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, World Wildlife Fund ^[52]—are actively working on climate-smart approaches targeting agricultural sector development, adaptation, and mitigation. ^[53]

Despite attempts by the government of Bhutan to initiate environmental conservation projects, the state is also developing sustainable agricultural practices to achieve the goals of climate adaptation and mitigation. The 2021 Low Emission Development Strategy for Food Security highlighted mitigation options in the agriculture ^[54] sector— which consisted of organic farming, reducing synthetic nitrogen-containing fertilizers, and advancements in crop selection. ^[55] The LEDS document also mentioned ways to improve productivity in the livestock sector through improvised grazing, and promoting biogas generation from animal manure. ^{[56] [57]}

However, the most significant state initiative was seen last September when the Kingdom of Bhutan released its first National Adaptation Plan (NAP) to address climate change. ^[58] The NAP has been prepared following international guidance and support from the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and is based on national development objectives and priorities. ^[59] It is entrusted with the responsibility of building adaptive capacity and resilience measures in facilitating the integration of climate change adaptation ^[60], and incorporating new policies in development planning processes and strategies. ^[61]

Apart from national-level policies, countries from the region like India have been collaborating with Bhutan on issues related to climate change. India and Bhutan since 2010 have signed several MOUs to expand bilateral cooperation in climate change and waste management. ^[62] In July 2024 a Bhutanese delegation headed by Minister of Energy and Natural Resources Gem Tshering met Indian Union Minister of State for Environment Kirti Vardhan Singh and discussed issues related to air quality, climate change, forests, natural resources, wildlife, and renewable energy. ^[63] Both countries agreed to work together in areas of air quality, forest, wildlife management, and capacity building in environmental protection and climate change after New Delhi suggested holding joint working group meetings between the two countries. ^[64]Finally, recognizing the transboundary nature of climate change impacts, Bhutan joins regional and international climate initiatives by collaborating with neighbouring countries and international organizations to share knowledge, technology, and resources for effective climate action.

Conclusion

To conclude, as the impacts of climate change intensify, continued international support and collaboration have become crucial for enhancing Bhutan’s resilience and achieving its climate goals. Despite Bhutan’s proactive approach towards climate change, the current environmental problems demand preserving the country’s natural heritage and embracing innovative solutions while preserving its culture and promoting the well-being of ^[65] its people.

References

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^[2] https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S2211464523000143 [4]
^[3] World Bank Group (2021). Data Bank. Country indicators, https://data.worldbank.org/country/bhutan [5]
^[4] https://www.globalsupportprogramme.org/explore/bhutan [6]
^[5] https://adaptation-undp.org/explore/asia-and-pacific/bhutan# [7]
^[6] https://www.globalsupportprogramme.org/explore/bhutan [6]
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^[9] https://www.climaterealityproject.org/blog/how-climate-change-quietly-rewriting-bhutans-future [9]
^[10] https://www.ipu.org/news/case-studies/2023-05/how-bhutan-addressing-climate-change [10]
^[11] https://adaptation-undp.org/explore/asia-and-pacific/bhutan# [7]
^[12] Ibid
^[13] https://www.globalsupportprogramme.org/explore/bhutan [6]
^[14] http://www.bhutanwatch.org/climate-change-impact-in-bhutan/ [11]
^[15] https://idl-bnc-idrc.dspacedirect.org/items/4b5bf277-f9d9-40ff-a33f-1a6878a7ed5f [12]
^[16] Health & Climate Change: Country Profile 2021 Bahamas
^[17] https://hir.harvard.edu/carbon-negativity-in-bhutan-an-inverse-free-rider-problem/ [13]
^[18] http://www.bhutanwatch.org/climate-change-impact-in-bhutan/ [11]
^[19] Ibid
^[20] https://wsj.westscience-press.com/index.php/wsshs/article/view/595 [14]
^[21] Ibid
^[22] https://www.globalsupportprogramme.org/explore/bhutan [6]
^[23] https://adaptation-undp.org/explore/asia-and-pacific/bhutan# [7]
^[24] https://climateactiontracker.org/countries/bhutan/policies-action/# [15]
^[25] https://wsj.westscience-press.com/index.php/wsshs/article/view/595 [14]
^[26] Ibid
^[27] https://climateactiontracker.org/countries/bhutan/policies-action/# [15]
^[28] https://climateactiontracker.org/countries/bhutan/policies-action/# [15]
^[29] https://isa-ghic.org/countries/bhutan# [16]
^[30]https://www.wwfbhutan.org.bt/_what_we_do/climate___energy/
^[31] https://climateactiontracker.org/countries/bhutan/policies-action/# [15]
^[32] Ibid
^[33] https://climateknowledgeportal.worldbank.org/sites/default/files/2021-08/15874-WB_Bhutan%20Country%20Profile-WEB.pdf [17]
^[34] https://blogs.worldbank.org/en/climatechange/dragons-data-and-clouds-bhutans-journey-carbon-markets-technology-and-resilient# [18]
^[35] https://climateknowledgeportal.worldbank.org/sites/default/files/2019-06/CSA-in-Bhutan.pdf [19]
^[36] https://scholarship.law.duke.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1215&context=delpf [20]
^[37] Ibid
^[38] https://climateknowledgeportal.worldbank.org/sites/default/files/2019-06/CSA-in-Bhutan.pdf [19]
^[39] https://climateactiontracker.org/countries/bhutan/policies-action/# [15]
^[40] https://climateactiontracker.org/countries/bhutan/policies-action/ [21]
^[41] https://climateknowledgeportal.worldbank.org/sites/default/files/2019-06/CSA-in-Bhutan.pdf [19]
^[42] https://kuenselonline.com/after-the-rain-comes-the-thoughts/ [22]
^[43] https://www.idea.int/sites/default/files/publications/chapters/climate-change-and-democracy-insights-from-asia-pacific/ch3-climate-change-and-democracy-insights-from-asia-pacific.pdf [23]
^[44] https://www.pefa.org/node/5251 [24]
^[45] https://www.dlgdm.gov.bt/storage/upload-documents/2021/9/20/Constitution-of-bhutan-2008.pdf [25]
^[46] https://www.ipu.org/news/case-studies/2023-05/how-bhutan-addressing-climate-change [10]
^[47] https://www.bgipu.org/activity-reports/ipu-looks-at-how-bhutan-is-addressing-climate-change/ [26]
^[48] Climate-Smart Agriculture in Bhutan
^[49] https://climateknowledgeportal.worldbank.org/sites/default/files/2019-06/CSA-in-Bhutan.pdf [19]
^[50] D. Zurick, 2006. “Gross National Happiness and Environmental Status in Bhutan.” Geographical Review 96(4):657–681
^[51] Ibid
^[52] Climate-Smart Agriculture in Bhutan
^[53] https://climateknowledgeportal.worldbank.org/sites/default/files/2019-06/CSA-in-Bhutan.pdf [19]
^[54] https://climateactiontracker.org/countries/bhutan/policies-action/ [21]
^[55] https://www.undp.org/sites/g/files/zskgke326/files/2023-01/LEDS_Food%20Security.pdf [27]
^[56] Ibid
^[57] https://climateactiontracker.org/countries/bhutan/policies-action/ [21]
^[58] https://www.icwa.in/show_content.php?lang=1&level=1&ls_id=10304&lid=6572 [28]
^[59] https://unfccc.int/sites/default/files/resource/NAP-Bhutan-2023.pdf [29]
^[60] https://biblio.ugent.be/publication/5921652 [30]
^[61] https://www.undp.org/bhutan/publications/national-adaptation-plan [31]
^[62] https://www.mea.gov.in/press-releases.htm?dtl/33930/India_and_Bhutan_sign_MoU_for_developing_cooperation_in_the_areas_of_Environment [32]
^[63] https://www.business-standard.com/external-affairs-defence-security/news/india-bhutan-to-work-together-in-areas-of-environment-and-climate-change-124071200846_1.html [33]
^[64] Ibid
^[65] https://fatsil.org/hopi-tribe/who-was-the-leader-of-the-hopi-tribe/ [34]
(The paper is the author’s individual scholastic articulation. The author certifies that the article/paper is original in content, unpublished and it has not been submitted for publication/web upload elsewhere, and that the facts and figures quoted are duly referenced, as needed, and are believed to be correct). (The paper does not necessarily represent the organisational stance... More >>