Deja Vu in 2025: Return of the HF 24 Debate

Three and a half decades after India ‘retired’ an indigenous fighter air craft -HF 24 Marut (after using it successfully in war), we are on the brink of a similar situation. These are the issues raised in the public domain: -

• We have an acute operational deficiency in number of fighter squadrons required to fight a two-front war- 31 squadrons against (minimum inescapable) requirement of 42 squadrons. ^[1], ^[2]
• This talk about indigenization is alright but we will take ten to twenty years to develop an indigenous fighter. The IAF can not remain critically deficient for so long. Hence purchase ‘off the shelf’ right now and continue to develop the indigenous fighter.
• China has developed sixth generation fighters. We are far behind. ^[3]
• Our options are either American F35 or the Russian Su57. ^[4]

We will look at these issues in a historical and geopolitical perspective. This will help in evolving a strategy based on facts as against narrative driven decision making.

Early Years and Ambitious Plans for Indigenous Fighter Air Craft ^[5]

On 15 August 1947 India inherited six squadrons of Spitfires (700 kms per hour speed at 11000 ft, 2462 kms operating range and powered by 2180 horse power engine) and Tempest (750 kms per hour at 24500 ft) ground attack fighters. These were among some of the good performers around that time. In 1948 India procured the Vampires (835 kms per hour) – heralding the age of jet fighters. In 1953, the French Ouragans (950 kms per hour in level flight at height 15000 meters) were added to the IAF, followed by British Hawkers Hunters with speeds of .95 Mach (1150kms per hour), Gnat (1120 kms per hour, 800 kms range) Canberra bombers (933 kms per hour at 48000 ft of height 3.5 tons of ordnance, could fly at heights of 10 kms). As per the available literature on the subject India had 23 squadrons of combat air craft in early sixties. All these aircraft were modern as per the contemporary standards. In terms of number and quality India had the best air force in Asia when we fought the Chinese in 1962 (and did not employ IAF in combat role!!). ^[6], ^[7], ^[8], ^[9], ^[10], ^[11], ^[12], ^[13], ^[14], ^[15]

It was the first Indian Prime Minister who dared to dream really big with an ambition to make India the first country in Asia to produce its own fighter aircraft. He picked up a Nazi scientist- Kurt Tank, who had built the most successful German fighter aircraft -Folk Wulf Fw190 during the WWII. ^[16] The IAF too dreamt big by asking for Mach 2 speed for this fighter. No fighter in the world had this speed in 1956! For the power train HAL was to develop its engine ‘Kaveri’, in collaboration with the Germans. The first prototype that flew in 1961 was powered by an Orpheus engine (used in Folland Gnat). Obviously the HF24 was subsonic. It was capable of carrying 1800 kgs bombs, 100 rockets(68mm) and four canons (30mm). HF 24 took part in 1971 war with Pakistan, shot down a Pakistani F86 Sabre on 7 December 1971, three pilots flying HF 24 in this war were awarded Veer Chakra. Though HF 24 had some glaring short comings. First when the fighter used all the four canons together the vibrations were so strong that the automatic flight control system of the air craft stopped. The IAF lost a test pilot (Sqn Leader Sapre) when he tried using all the four canons during operations in 1971. Its canopy used to fly off at some attack angles. Those who flew the plane found it a good war machine that could be improved upon (to meet the future needs of the IAF). But some how the shortcomings were not (or could not be) removed. The last HF 24 flew in 1990. Thus, the HF 24 story became a mix of lofty goals, romanticism, commitment of India’s air warriors with their now famous daring, raw courage and patriotism. ^[17], ^[18]

The Second Phase of Induction of Combat aircraft: Many Countries Many Aircraft

The failure of HF 24 project triggered a long series of import of fighter air craft from erstwhile USSR and later Russia, France and the UK. MiG 21 came to India in 1963 followed by Su 7, MiG23, MiG 25, MiG 27, MiG 29, Su 30 MKI from Russia. From UK and France came Jaguars, Mirage 2000, Rafale. Three of these- MiG 23, 25 and 27 are out of service. Three squadrons of MiG 21 will ‘retire’ by end of 2025. That would leave us with 28 squadrons. Five of these will comprise of the French made Mirage 2000 and Rafale – three and two squadrons respectively. Sixteen will be of Su30 MKI and MiG29- (thirteen and three respectively), five British Jaguar squadrons and two squadrons of indigenous Tejas. ^[19] India fought the 1965 and 1971 wars with first generation aircraft except for MiG 21 which can be considered belonging to third generation. The current inventory of Indian aircraft with their modifications can easily qualify for fourth generation combat aircraft. Rafale is considered slightly ahead of fourth generation- generally referred as 4.5 generation!

This phase of equipping the IAF with supersonic fighter aircraft commenced in early eighties with British Jaguars (1980), Russian MiG29 (1987) and Su30MKI (initially Su30 Mk 1) in 1997 Mirage 2000 in 1998, indigenously built Tejas in 2016 and finally French Rafale in 2021. ^[20], ^[21], ^[22], ^[23], ^[24], ^[25] The Su30MKI is the most versatile, powerful aircraft in the inventory. Besides its top speed of about Mach 2 at 11000 ft it has capability to track 20 aerial targets and attack eight of these simultaneously. It can act as mini-Air Borne Warning and Control System (AWACS) for four fighters in its team. It has been modified to carry a 2.5 tons BrahMos supersonic missile (Mach 2.8). It has the best in service avionics, RADAR, precision guidance system, electronic warfare pack, long endurance (can fly for ten hours with mid air refueling and hence can achieve an operating range of 8000 kms). Bulk of the modifications in the aircraft have been done by HAL.

The French Mirage 2000 is an equally potent and proven strike aircraft (proved its worth in Kargil operation and in the Balakot strike). With a Mach 2.2 speed it is loaded with a host of guided weapons and Electronic Counter Measures. Its Electronic Warfare (EW) pack is indigenous. The Tejas at 1.6 Mach is considered superior to Mirage 2000 in combat role. The MiG 29 and MiG29 K are air superiority aircraft have top speed of 2.35 Mach and are equipped with some of the latest guided weapons and electronic suits. The IAF and the IN are equipped with MiG 29. The Naval version is modified for short take off but assisted recovery. The Rafale at 1.8 Mach is considered the best multirole aircraft in its category. As per Dassault Aviation a single Rafale can perform the tasks that required seven French air craft of earlier generation. Hence the French air force is replacing 700 aircraft of earlier generation with 225 Rafales!! The Jaguars (Mach 1.37) are oldest aircraft in this pack. However, with their inhouse modification Display Attack Ranging Inertial Navigation III (DARIN-III) these aircraft are likely to play useful role for more than a decade. ^[26]

The Long Story of Light Combat Aircraft (LCA) ‘Tejas’ ^[27]

It began in 1978 when Air Chief Marshal IH Latif (1978-81) was at the helm. Frustrated by the inability to fix the nagging shortcomings in HF 24 and poor performance of MiG 21 the IAF wanted a low-cost replacement for both these combat aircraft in a short time frame. The aeronautical engineers at the Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL) wanted to showcase their prowess in design and approached the then Prime Minister Late Mrs. Indira Gandhi. The PM agreed and asked them to produce a state of art combat air craft. Accordingly, the IAF gave them the Air Staff Requirement (ASR). The ambitious project included fly by wire capability, composite material airframe, multi functional display controlled by mission computer, multimode radar, guided air to air and air to surface weapons, electronic warfare protection and a powerful jet engine (remember Kaveri?). Four organizations were to work on this as a team- the Hindustan Aeronautical Limited (HAL), Aeronautical Design Agency (ADA), Gas Turbine Research Establishment (GTRE) and of course the IAF. Given the ambitious goal it was evident that the ‘futuristic’ combat aircraft can not be inducted by 1990. It was only in 2015 that the first set of Tejas were inducted in the IAF. This induction in a way was ‘pushed’ by the government.

The CAG, (in ‘Performance Audit on Design Development Manufacture and Induction of Light Combat Aircraft’) ^[28], brings out some surprising and unflattering facts about the overall functioning of public sector and their users’ participation in such a project of national importance. Firstly, the HAL and later the ADA, were exceptionally high on ambition and remarkably poor in knowledge-base, expertise and overall performance. Hence, they always failed to keep their own timelines. The IAF on their part behaved as a typical user. When the project commenced the IAF was asked to send their team of officers to form part of a ‘Standing Liaison Group’ as early as in 1989. It took them seventeen years to post their representatives to the group (when a Group of Ministers was formed to oversee the project) in 2006. The reason for this delay as per the IAF (reported in the CAG Performance Audit) was that IAF as a user can only be part the Standing Liaison Group once the aircraft design is finalized! The CAG was not satisfied by the response in the report.

Thirdly, a project that was of national importance was dealt in bits and pieces- airframe by the ADA, manufacture by HAL, hardpoints for weapon systems by some other country, electronic warfare and radar component by another country and aeroengine by the GTRE of India. Thus, by the time the airframe design was finalized and prototype made, the IAF revised the weapons for the hardpoints (missile from R-60 to R-73, additional place for the Russian M-62 bomb, additional Derby and Python missiles in 2009). This made the design engineers to revisit the drawing board and hence further delay.

The GTRE on their part failed to provide the aeroengine that could power LCA. The engine lacked desired power, was too heavy, suffered from excessive vibrations at higher altitudes was bigger than required in size. Hence, the GE F404 engine for the LCA. The initial lot of LCAs handed over to the IAF had 110 critical and 393 non critical deficiencies. The user was told that HAL will remedy all the shortcomings. The IAF accepted 36 (two squadron) LCAs. As per a Government of India Press Release of 01 July 2023 all the shortcomings have been removed, Tejas is a multirole platform that ranks among the best in the class. It has taken part in a number of airshows in India and abroad. It is capable of maritime reconnaissance and strike roles, has enhanced maneuverability, is equipped with multi mode airborne radar, self protection suite and lasers designation pods. The press release also sites the additional order for 83 Tejas by the IAF as proof of users’ confidence in the LCA. ^[29] However, all engines for the 83 aircraft will be given by the GE (F404 and F414).

Strategic Shift in Political Economy for Indigenization of IAF

There is a need for transformation in the cognitive approach, organizational structures and cultures and corresponding reforms in processes. Thus, we need to think of defence investment as against defence expenditure. Secondly, starting ratios do not decide the outcome of wars. Thirdly, create competitive market conditions and lastly adopt a ‘whole of the nation’ approach.

Expenditure to Investment. The size of global market for defence related products in 2024 is 2494 billion dollars. This is expected to reach 3871 billion dollars by 2033 at 5% annual growth. ^[30] Even the Indian defence market in 2024 is 17.2 billion dollars - expected to reach 28.4 billion dollars in 2033. ^[31] Back in the 70s when India had developed HF 24 Marut the Eastern African countries wanted to import this aircraft. India did not favour export of weapons- perhaps due to their ideal of non violence. There is a need to get real and shun this misplaced belief. Fortunately, during the past few years exports of Indian weapon systems are on the increase. The national leadership is enthusiastic about increasing such exports. ^[32] The LCA itself was showcased in several countries and there appears to be sizable demand for this low-cost high-grade combat aircraft. ^[33] The global market for military aircraft in 2025 is 50.59 billion US $ expected to grow more than US $70 billion in 2032. ^[34] For Commercial aircraft the market size is 157.3 billion US$ expected to reach 260 billion US$ by 2033. ^[35] Even the aeroengine market for production and Maintenance Repair Overhaul (MRO) for military aircraft for the next two decades would be US $ 6.7 billion for India (2000 military aircraft). For commercial aircraft for the next two decades, it would be around US $ 128 billion. ^[36] Incidentally, India would be procuring 1350 horse power engines (replacing the 1000 HP engine) for the Russian T 90 tanks ^[37], we have a huge demand for automobiles, rapidly expanding navy, thus the overall payoffs for investing in the mobility market in terms of jobs creation, impetus to GDP and international clout would be extremely attractive. However, we will have to set up our own benchmarks that are realistic and help gradual indigenization. Remember there was no need to peg the HF 24 speed at Mach 2. There was no need for four canons if their simultaneous use rattled the aircraft control system. Today we need to think very and critically analyze the urgency of 42 squadrons. We have Rafale, Su30 MKI, MiG 29s, Mirage 2000s and LCAs. The Su30 MKI engines- that have a thrust of 126 KN per engine, are sourced through an Indian company. More than 50 % of the engine is indigenous. Russia is keen to give an upgraded version of this engine that can produce 146 KN. Around 240 of these engines (126KN) are being procured. ^[38] Given the capabilities of Su 30 MKI, India gets additional time of perhaps one to two decades to produce their own indigenous aero engine that meets our requirements and helps us get a reasonable share of the market.

Avoid Getting Overawed by ‘Number’ and ‘generation’ Gaps. When we bring numbers in the comparative strength debate a few facts are very conveniently ignored. First starting ratios never decide the outcome of war. If numbers and tag of ‘generation’ had a causal relationship with outcome of war Israel, Vietnam, and even India would have lost all their wars. The Germans would have never been successful in WWII till 1943- instead they would have lost even the first battle for France. Secondly, in case of India the IAF was never fully used in any of the wars they fought with their adversaries. This is in spite of the fact that they were always superior in numbers. As we have seen earlier in the 1962 war with China, India’s best air force in Asia was not employed under a false phobia of Chinese air strength. In 1965 Arjun Subramanayam ^[39] (India’s Wars) gives a narrative of Indian and Pakistani air forces on following lines. ‘Though India had a total of 460 combat aircraft this included old and slow 132 Vampires and 56 Ouragans’. Thus, as per his argument only around 272 combat aircraft were available for 1965 war. Out of this about one third were deployed against East Pakistan. Remember there was no fighting on this front during this war. Pakistan on the other hand had modern F 86s and F 104s. Thus, as per him it was somewhat unequal contest in which the IAF performed reasonably well.

Compare IAF’s performance with the use of air power by the Israeli Air Force in 1967. Israelis had 250 combat aircraft. All these aircraft were serviceable. On 5 June 1967, the first day of the war 200 of these 250 aircraft were airborne. With in first thirty minutes 204 Egyptian combat air craft were destroyed in air- to -air combat and rest on the ground. The second wave of Israeli air attacks- 164 sorties in 100 minutes, destroyed 107 Egyptian planes. Thus, in the opening salvo itself Israelis destroyed 286 of 420 Egyptian combat air craft. ^[40] On 06 June 1967 the Israeli forces rolled in the Sinai desert. Rest is history. The Israelis- as per Indian standards had vintage combat aircraft- Ouragan (50), Mirages (65), Super Mystere (55), Fougas (45), and Vatours light bomber (20). Compared to this the IAF of 1965 had MiG 21 one squadron (inducted in 1963 but not operationalized), Mysteres (80) Hunters, Folland Gnats, Canberra bombers etc. (Subramanyam). All these aircraft were equal if not better than what the Israelis had in 1967.

In 1971 out of 568 combat aircraft India had only 344 were serviceable (61%). A total of 5634 sorties were flown by IAF on both the fronts in two-week long war. ^[41] Israelis had launched more than 400 sorties during the first two days of the war!! As per Air Chief Marshal P C Lal (who headed air operations in 1965) 1965 demonstrated in practical terms deficiencies in the Army Air link up at virtually every level of command. Hence the emphasis has to be on optimal utilization of resource as against creating a resource and then not using it. Finally, about the ‘generation’ hype. There are several technological solutions to break through the stealth power of these fifth and sixth generation aircraft. India too has those technologies with their ground-based air defence system. ^[42] Besides Gnat that was of inferior generation proved to be at par if not better than the F86 Sabre. The Israeli intelligence system was fooled in 1973 due to their belief that the Egyptians would never embark on an offensive till they acquire MiG 23 from Russia. The Egyptians did not wait for the MiG 23 and achieved huge success in the initial phases of Yom Kippur War (1973) without employing any airpower in the Sinai campaign. The hand-held surface to air missiles did the job that was expected from MiG 23!! ^[43]

Monopoly to Perfect Competition.

The defence production units- till very recently, remained in monopolistic silos. Hence, we remained the top importers of defense systems from abroad in spite of our declared policy of indigenization way back in 1967. It was in 2017 that 41 ordnance factories were merged into seven Defence Production Public Sector Units doing away with 246 years old rules and systems. In addition, the private sector was slowly brought at par with these DPPSUs to bid for defence projects. ^[44] The case of developing an indigenous combat aircraft and an aeroengine that can generate 110 to 130 Kilo Newton thrust by HAL, ADA and the GTRE; suggests that more needs to be done to fully unshackle the great entrepreneurial spirits of the Indians- like we have done in developing our own cryogenic engine, nuclear reactors and fast breeders. Even in the military aircraft ecosystems HAL has excelled in producing indigenous combat helicopters such as Dhruv, Rudra and most recently Light Combat Helicopter (LCH) Prachand that can support land operations at heights around 16500 feet. ^[45] For a long time, we were waiting for a replacement of Bofors. It was L&T of India in collaboration with South Korea that produced a gun far superior to Bofors. ^[46] Our public sector organizations like the GTRE, HAL and ADA lacked resolute leadership, unwavering commitment, clarity of goal, team work. Besides excessive and unnecessary secrecy, bureaucratic red tapes, sticking to the rules rather than changing the rules where these obstruct achievement of goals resulted in wastage of money, delays and created a culture of subpar performance. ^[47] There is a need to further open the defence industry to the private sector to create a level playing field for fair competition. The public sector units are a trove house of expertise and experience. They need to be given wings to fly in a competitive eco system.

Whole of the Nation Approach.

China spends around 1.5% of its GDP on defence that amounts to 245 billion US dollars. This is equivalent of the total plan outlay for India. ^[48] Obviously competing with China in defence expenditure is not an option. More importantly India does not have to adopt this option in the interest of her national security. While maintaining a judiciously created military strength and displaying the will to use it if the situation demands, there are other fronts which are more important. These include an astute and pragmatic foreign policy, a robust economic growth trajectory, concerted efforts to compete for a place in the global supply chain and countering Chinese narrative war internally and in the international fora.

Conclusion

As we analyze the facts described in the discussion above some pertinent inferences are obvious. During the last seven decades, France has progressed from Ouragan to Rafale; the US, Russia and even China have graduated from the so called first generation to sixth generation combat aircraft while we are still looking for suitable engines for our combat aircraft. These countries that are spending enormous amount of capital on defence are also among the top exporters of defence systems. One of the prime reasons for this lead is their investment on research and development that gives them early access to niche technologies. As per World Bank Data (2021) China spent 2.43 percent of its GDP on R&D, where as we spent .65 percent. ^[49] The Chinese private sector contributed three fourth to this investment while in case of India the private sector contribution was less than one third. ^[50] Given the fact that China’s GDP itself is more than thrice that of India this is a huge gap. A small country like Israel spends close to 6 percent of its GDP on R&D. The US- the biggest exporter of defence systems and technologies to the world, spent 3.46 percent where as France from whom we bought Rafale spent 2.2 percent on R&D in the same year. If we want to be Atmanirbhar in the future we need to invest in the future. Bulk of this investment in the future must come from the private sector that wishes to compete in global market. Secondly, our decision making gets influenced by external or self generated narratives and ignores the facts. The HF24 was always a better option than MiG21 in peace as well as in war. Throughout its service we lost much less HF24 compared to MiG21s and even other foreign origin aircraft. Bulk of the HF24 losses were during war. Whereas very large number of its replacement aircraft (MiG21) were lost in peace. ^[51]

While People Liberation Army Airforce (PLAF) is equipped with its own indigenous aircraft we are dependent on number of countries for combat aircraft and even for the Maintenance Repair and Overhauls (MRO). It is time we stick to the indigenous LCAs and Advance Medium Combat Aircraft (AMCA) with indigenous aero engines even if this means waiting for another decade. It is also important to avoid getting stuck with the ‘sixth generation’ narrative. A careful look at the differentiators between one generation to the another would indicate that except for the stealth technologies (related to shape and material) everything else is a function of Artificial Intelligence, software and information fusion. ^[52] India has demonstrated leadership in these fields. India’s success in launching its GSLV D5 with indigenous cryogenic engine in January 2014 proves the prowess of Indian scientists and engineers. The Indian ricket engine happens to be the lightest (though it carried much lighter payload – five tons) and more importantly of least cost of 40 million US$ compared to the next best Chinese engine costing 56.5 million US$. ^[53], ^[54], ^[55]

End Notes

^[1] Pai Nitin (Jan 2025) India’s Air force Can’t afford to fall short of Combat Aircraft Mondal Manisha, The Print, 24 September 2018 , https://www.livemint.com/opinion/columns/nitin-pai-india-s-air-force-can-t-afford-to-fall-short-of-combat-aircraft-iaf-tejas-defense-fdi-china-hal-imports-jet-11736498654911.html
^[2] India Vs China Air Power Compared ( 31 July 2020) https://www.airforce-technology.com/features/india-vs-china-indian-air-force-iaf-vs-peoples-liberation-army-air-force-plaaf/
^[3] Kuruvitha Rathindra ( Feb 2025) China’s Sixth Generation Fighter Potential Game Changer for Air Superiority in Asia https://thediplomat.com/2025/02/chinas-6th-generation-fighter-potential-game-changer-for-air-superiority-in-asia/
^[4] Mirza Asad ( March 2025) IAF Predicament to Buy F35 or Su57 Fighter Jet https://raksha-anirveda.com/iafs-predicament-to-buy-f-35-or-su-57-fighter-jet/
^[5]Ministry of Defense (7 October 2024) The Story of Indian Air force A journey through time
^[6] https://pib.gov.in/PressNoteDetails.aspx?NoteId=153257&ModuleId=3&reg=3&lang=1
^[7] Wade TS (Squadron Leader) The Aeroplane June 1946 ‘Comparative Performance of Fighter Aircraft’
^[8] http://www.wwiiaircraftperformance.org/sl-wade.html
^[9] Guilmartin John F Spitfire British Aircraft ( Last updated 31 January 2025) https://www.britannica.com/technology/Spitfire
^[10] Dassault Aviation ‘From Ouragan to Rafale https://www.dassault-aviation.com/en/passion/from-ouragan-to-rafale/from-ouragan-to-rafale/
^[11] Editor Bharat Rakshak (2015) adopted from Pushpinder Singh Chopra ‘ Sukhoi 7 A Whale of a Fighter’ - https://www.bharat-rakshak.com/iaf/aircraft/past/sukhoi-7/#:~:text=Although%20the%20Su%2D7%20had,and%20limited%20external%20stores%20carriage.
^[12] Bharat Rakshak The Canberras in 1965 War (January 1970) https://www.bharat-rakshak.com/iaf/history/1965war/book/the-canberras-in-the-1965-war/
^[13] Nair K S (1999) in Bharat Rakshak ‘Folland Gnat -Red Arrow and Sabre slayer https://www.bharat-rakshak.com/iaf/books/reviews/folland-gnat/
^[14] Singh Poly in (2017) in Bharat Rakshak, ‘The Temperamental Tempest A Brief History of IAF ‘s true fighter bomber’ https://www.bharat-rakshak.com/iaf/aircraft/past/hawker-tempest-ii/
^[15] De Havilland Vampire https://www.baesystems.com/en/heritage/de-havilland-vampire)
^[16] Dassault Aviation MD 450 Ouragan https://www.dassault-aviation.com/en/passion/aircraft/military-dassault-aircraft/md-450-ouragan/
^[17] IAF’s Combat Fleet The 80 years Journey to 42 Squadrons https://iafhistory.in/2023/07/09/iafs-combat-fleet-the-80-year-journey-to-42-squadrons/
^[18] What happened when Nehru and former Nazi Engineer built India made first and only operational combat fighter https://theprint.in/defence/when-nehru-and-nazi-germany-engineer-built-first-india-made-operational-combat-fighter/123749/
^[19] Dev Arun Bengaluru( July 2021) 60 Years of Marut A Fighter Jet that proved its worth in 1971 war Hindustan Times https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/60-years-of-marut-a-fighter-jet-that-proved-its-worth-in-1971-war-101624129770008.html
^[20] Ibrahim Ahmad (October 2023) ‘MiG 21 The Flying Coffin of the Indian Airforce’ https://southasianvoices.org/mig-21-the-flying-coffin-of-the-indian-air-force/
^[21] Singh Ahwetabh (2020) in Air Power Asia , ‘MiG 21 and IAF a Developmental Perspective’ https://airpowerasia.com/2020/09/21/mig-21-and-iaf-a-developmental-perspective/
^[22] SEPECAT Jaguar Ground attack Aircraft Airforce Technology (2020) https://www.airforce-technology.com/projects/sepecat-jaguar/?cf-view
^[23] Bharat Rakshak Mikoyan Gurovich -MiG 29, 1999, https://www.bharat-rakshak.com/iaf/aircraft/specs/mig-29/
^[24] Bharat Rakshak Sukhoi 30 (2010) https://www.bharat-rakshak.com/iaf/aircraft/specs/sukhoi-30/
^[25] Bharat Rakshak Dassault Mirage 2000 (2010) https://www.bharat-rakshak.com/iaf/aircraft/specs/mirage-2000/
^[26]Dassault Aviation ‘From Ouragan to Rafale https://www.dassault-aviation.com/en/passion/from-ouragan-to-rafale/from-ouragan-to-rafale/
^[27] Tejas Mark (Mk) 1 Light Combat Supersonic Fighter India ( Air Force Technology 19 July 2024) https://www.airforce-technology.com/projects/tejas/?cf-view
^[28] Bhargav Kapil (Gp. Captain) in Bharat Rakshak Quarter Century of the Jaguars in India (1999) https://www.bharat-rakshak.com/iaf/aircraft/current/jaguar-25/
^[29] Air Marshal Philip Rajkumar 29 January 2021, First Post, Book Excerpt, , The Tejas Story https://www.firstpost.com/india/in-the-tejas-story-a-retired-air-marshal-chronicles-his-experiences-of-test-flying-the-lca-jets-9251021.html
^[30] Performance Audit on 'Design, Development, Manufacture Induction of LCA https://cag.gov.in/uploads/download_audit_report/2015/
^[31] Light Combat Aircraft Tejas Completes Seven Years in Indian Air Force ( 10 June 2023) https://pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=1936373
^[32] Defence Market Size Share Growth and Trend Overview Business Research Insight (March 2025) https://www.businessresearchinsights.com/market-reports/defence-market-109136#:~:text=The%20global%20defence%20market%20size,period%20from%202025%20to%202033.
^[33]India Defence Market Report by Type and Region 2025-2033 IMAC Report https://www.imarcgroup.com/india-defense-market#:~:text=Market%20Overview%3A,5.76%25%20during%202025%2D2033
^[34]Pathak Ashok (19 Sep 2022) Indigenisation of Defence Production From Vision to Outcome https://www.vifindia.org/article/2022/september/19/indigenization-of-defence-production
^[35] IAF set to showcase LCA Tejas Mk1 on Global stage Pathak Ashok (19 Sep 2022) Indigenisation of Defence Production From Vision to Outcome https://www.vifindia.org/article/2022/september/19/indigenization-of-defence-production
^[36] Military Aircraft Market Size and Trends https://www.coherentmarketinsights.com/market-insight/military-aircraft-market-5311#:~:text=Global%20military%20aircraft%20market%20is,4.8%25%20from%202025%20to%202032.
^[37] Commercial aircraft market size https://www.alliedmarketresearch.com/commercial-aircraft-market#:~:text=The%20global%20commercial%20aircraft%20market,5.3%25%20from%202024%20to%202033
^[38]Singh Suresh (Air Vice Marshal) Aeroengine Fundamentals and Landscape in India A Way Forward (Centre for Air Power Studies) KW Publishers, 2024, ISBN 9788196585020
^[39] AFI ( 22 March 2025) Indian Army T90 tanks set for a surprise power boost with 1350 HP engine upgrade https://idrw.org/indian-armys-t-90-tanks-set-for-a-surprise-power-boost-with-1350-hp-engine-upgrade/
^[40] Hill John (2024) ‘India Orders 240 engines for Su30MKI Fighter Fleet’ https://www.airforce-technology.com/news/india-orders-240-engines-for-su-30-mki-fighter-fleet/#:~:text=The%20Su%2D30MKI%20is%20powered,of%20300%20metres%20per%20second
^[41]Subramanaym Arjun India’s Wars a Military History Harpers Collins 2016, ISBN 9789351777496
^[42]Michael B Oren, ‘Six Days War The Making of Modern Middle East’, Ballantine Books New York 2002
^[43] Chopra Anil (Air Marshal, Editor) The 1971 Indo Pak War Reflections and Projections KW Publishers Pvt Ltd New Delhi Centre for Air Power Studies, 2021
^[44]Saxena V K (Lt Gen) – Editor, Ground Based Air Defense in India Challenges and Opportunities United Service Institution of India New Delhi, Pentagon Press 2018, ISBN 9789386618580
^[45]Pathak Ashok (Brig) Unified Theatre Command Breaking Free of Military Silos Vitasta Publishing Pvt Ltd New Delhi, First Edition 2025, ISBN 9788119670284
^[46]Ibid 32
^[47]B S Pawar (Lt Gen) -13 January 2024, ‘Induction of Prachand Light Combat Helicopter impact on Operations at High Altitude’ https://bharatshakti.in/induction-of-prachand-light-combat-helicopter-impact-on-operations-at-high-altitudes/
^[48] Alpha Defence ( 3 April 2025) ‘India Expands K9 Vajra -T-Howitzer Fleet with Follow on Order’ https://alphadefense.in/index.php/2025/04/03/india-orders-100-more-k9-vajra-howitzers-indigenous-production-defense-upgrade/
^[49]Godbole Akash (Wing Commander) Indigenous Jet Engine Development India at Cross Roads 11 Feb 2025 https://capsindia.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/CAPS_IB_AG_11_2_25.pdf
^[50]ET online ( 06 March 2025) India Vs China Defence Gap Widens as Beijing’ s 245 Billion Dollars Budget nears half of India’s national outlayhttps://www.internationalaffairs.org.au/australianoutlook/how-does-chinas-rising-defence-budget-affect-india/
^[51]Research and Development as percentage of GDP World bank Datahttps://data.worldbank.org/indicator/GB.XPD.RSDV.GD.ZS
^[52] Koshy Jacob The Hindu (06 March 2025) ‘₹1 lakh crore fund for private sector research close to approval’ https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/1-lakh-crore-fund-for-private-sector-research-close-to-approval/article69299423.ece
^[53] Bharat Rakshak IAF, IA and IN Aircraft Losses Data Base https://www.bharat-rakshak.com/indianairforce/database/accidents/listing.php?cur=2050&qyear=&qt=TY&qunit=&qacid=AL).
^[54]Kota Harinarayana Tejas India’s Light Combat Aircraft and its Technologies ( October 2021) https://www.ias.ac.in/public/Volumes/reso/026/10/1379-1402.pdf
^[55]Lele Ajay, Bhardwaj Parveen (19 Feb 2014) IDSA Issue Brief ,‘Heavy Satellite Launch Vehicles An Assessment’ https://idsa.in/system/files/IB_HeavySatelliteLaunchVehicles.pdf

(The paper is the author’s individual scholastic articulation. The author certifies that the article/paper is original in content, unpublished and it has not been submitted for publication/web upload elsewhere, and that the facts and figures quoted are duly referenced, as needed, and are believed to be correct). (The paper does not necessarily represent the organisational stance... More >>